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2. Delineate the president’s constitutional qualifications
and powers.
3. Understand the role and importance of the organizations, agencies,
and individuals who make up the executive branch.
4. Explain the relationship between the president and Congress over
the direction and content of foreign and domestic policy.
5. Detail the particular skills the president needs to successfully
guide his programs through Congress and lead his party.
6. Explain the relationship between the president and the media.
Chapter Outline and Summary
I. Introduction
A. Demands on the presidency are numerous
and contradictory.
B. Presidential influence and power has varied
since the 1950s.
II. The President and Symbolic Leadership
A. The president serves as both the ceremonial
chief of state and the actual head of government.
B. The ceremonial presidency is the symbol
of national unity.
1. The honeymoon period accords public goodwill
and often results in political victories.
2. International crises rally presidential
support.
C. The fusion of symbolic and political authority
may result in public criticism as well.
III. The President and the Constitution
A. Introduction
1. The Constitution requires the president
to be a natural-born citizen, at least 35 years old, and a resident
for 14 years.
2. The president serves four-year terms,
limited to two terms by the Twenty-second Amendment.
B. Executive Power
1. Presidents have interpreted executive
power differently.
a. The stewardship theory suggests broad
powers.
b. The constitutional theory suggests narrow,
limited powers.
c. The steel seizure case established a middle
ground based on the imperatives of events.
2. The plasticity of the presidency means
that the president can mold the office according to his personality
and events.
C. The Power of Appointment
1. The president nominates ambassadors, judges,
and other officials, usually with the advice and consent of the Senate.
2. The Senate may delay or defeat a nomination.
D. The Removal Power
1. The Supreme Court has ruled that the president’s removal
powers apply only to purely executive offices.
2. The president can place pressure on officials
to resign.
E. The Power to Pardon
1. The president’s pardon powers are limited to federal offenses.
2. Ford’s pardon of Nixon was one of the most controversial.
IV. The President and the Executive Branch
A. The Cabinet
1. The Cabinet is not a high-level decision-making
body.
2. Individual officers can have significance
for the president.
3. Cabinet officers may be politically independent
and more responsive to constituent groups than the president.
4. The inner Cabinet consists of the secretaries
of state, defense, treasury, and the attorney general who work close
to the president.
5. The outer Cabinet consists of the remaining
officers with defined programs and client groups.
6. Recently presidents have chosen their
cabinets based on loyalty and professionalism.
B. The White House Staff
1. Staff members are loyal to the president
and usually close to the president prior to his assuming office.
2. Staff aides offer advice, set legislative
strategy, check the bureaucracy, review the Cabinet, plan the president’s
time, and say “no” for the president.
3. Presidents manage their staff to suit
their own personalities.
4. President Bush used a multiple advocacy
process to hear all sides of an issue.
C. The Executive Office of the President
1. The Executive Office of the President
is the managerial arm of the presidency.
2. The structure of the EOP reflects the
dominant issues of the time and the office is used by presidents
according to their own styles.
3. The Office of Management and Budget helps
the president develop the budget and monitors the president’s
programs.
4. The National Security Council provides
advice and policy coordination on questions of national security.
5. The Council of Economic Advisers analyzes
economic issues, makes economic forecasts, and prepares the president’s
Economic Report to Congress.
6. The Office of Policy Development focuses
on the formulation, coordination, and implementation of economic
and domestic policy.
D. The Vice-President
1. Most vice-presidents performed largely
ceremonial tasks with the office a target of ridicule and disdain.
2. As vice-president, Walter Mondale played
a more important role as an advisor in policymaking.
E. Presidential Succession
1. The Twenty-fifth Amendment allows the
vice-president to become acting president when the president is disabled
and provides a means to fill a vice-presidential vacancy.
2. The Presidential Succession Act of 1947
establishes the line of succession in case of simultaneous vacancies.
V. The President and Congress: Foreign Policy
A. Introduction
1. Congress can influence foreign policy,
but the president controls it.
2. Since Vietnam, Congress has become more
assertive in foreign policy.
B. Negotiating Treaties
1. Most treaties have been approved by the
Senate without question (a major exception was the Treaty of Versailles).
2. Since Wilson, presidents have included
senators in treaty negotiations.
3. Treaties are now rarely routine and often
require presidential concessions.
C. Executive Agreements
1. An executive agreement is an understanding
between heads of state requiring no Senate approval.
2. Many executive agreements have been serious
tools of foreign policy, classified, and kept from Congress.
3. The Case Act, primarily symbolic, placed
restrictions on executive agreements, particularly secret ones.
VI. The President and Congress: The War Power
A. Introduction
1. Congress alone has the constitutional
power to declare war.
2. The commander-in-chief clause establishes
civilian control over the military.
B. The Mexican and Civil Wars
1. James Polk manipulated Congress into declaring
war on Mexico.
2. Lincoln’s actions before the Civil War were mostly backed
by Congress and upheld by the Supreme Court in the Prize Cases.
C. The Two World Wars
1. In 1917 and 1941 Congress formally declared
war and delegated vast discretionary powers to the president.
2. Roosevelt made broad use of his wartime
powers, including the detention of all Japanese Americans (later
upheld by the court in Korematsu v. United States).
D. The Cold War
1. Truman’s action in the Korean War was outside the framers’ original
understanding of the president’s war powers.
2. During the Cold War, Congress acquiesced
to the president’s war powers, including Eisenhower’s
request to use force if needed to protect Taiwan.
E. The Vietnam Trauma
1. Presidential war actions in Vietnam were
sanctioned by Congress in the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
2. As the war lost public support, Congress
attempted to regain its authority primarily through its appropriations
power.
F. The War Powers Resolution
1. The War Powers Resolution states that
the president cannot use troops in combat beyond 60 days unless authorized
by Congress.
2. The resolution has had little effect on
presidential behavior and has been successfully used only in the
Gulf War.
VII. The President and Congress: Domestic Policy
A. Legislative Skills—presidents must:
1. know the legislative environment.
2. have a good sense of timing.
3. establish their priorities.
4. have a high-quality legislative liaison
office.
5. consult with both party leaders.
6. establish broad bipartisan support.
B. The Presidential Veto
1. A president can veto a bill within ten
days after which it can be overridden by a two-thirds majority of
each house.
2. A pocket veto, which cannot be overridden,
occurs if Congress adjourns within the ten day period.
3. The veto is a powerful weapon, as only
about 4 percent are overridden.
4. The president does not have an item veto
where only sections of a bill are rejected.
C. Executive Privilege
1. Executive privilege is the right of the
president to refuse information requested by Congress and the courts.
2. Nixon attempted to enlarge this power
during the Watergate affair, but the court ruled in United States
v. Nixon that executive privilege was not absolute.
3. Congress has become more assertive and
suspicious about claims of executive privilege (the Anne Burford/EPA
case).
D. Impeachment
1. The House brings the impeachment charges
and the Senate conducts the trial.
VIII. The President and the Media
A. Introduction
1. Presidents and the media have a love-hate
relationship.
2. Presidents want to control information
while reporters want to get as much interesting information as possible.
3. The media tend to oversimplify issues
or treat personalities as stereotypes.
B. Phases of the Relationship
1. Cooperation occurs in the administration’s honeymoon stage.
2. Conflict begins after the administration
has settled in.
3. Detachment occurs later as the president
becomes less accessible to the press.
C. The Imperial President vs. the Imperial
Media
1. The president can orchestrate his appearances,
decide on the format, and use news leaks to his advantage.
2. The media can use investigative reporting,
take advantage of news leaks, and portray the president as they wish.
3. The result is usually a stand-off between
the president and the press.
IX. Summary
Key Terms, Concepts, and Personalities
After studying Chapter 10 you should be able to identify and describe
the significance of:
- chief of state
-
head of government
-
natural-born citizens
-
naturalized citizens
-
Twenty-second Amendment
-
stewardship theory
-
constitutional theory
-
steel seizure case
-
Watergate affair
-
the administration
-
inner Cabinet
-
outer Cabinet
-
multiple advocacy
-
Executive Office of the President
-
Office of Management and Budget
-
National Security Council
-
Council of Economic Advisers
-
Office of Policy Development
-
Twenty-fifth Amendment
-
Presidential Succession Act of 1947
-
executive agreements
-
Case Act
-
Commander-in-chief clause
-
Prize Cases
-
Korematsu v. United States
-
Cold War
-
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
-
War Powers Resolution
-
veto
-
pocket veto
-
item veto
-
executive privilege
-
United States v. Nixon
-
impeachment
TESTING YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Completion
1. As chief of state the president performs primarily _______________________
duties.
2. A third presidential term is forbidden by the _________________________
Amendment.
3. The broad interpretation of executive power often associated
with Theodore Roosevelt is called the ____________________ ______________________.
4. The group of Cabinet members who handle issues of broad importance
such as national security, economy, and justice is called the ____________________
________________.
5. George Bush’s staged policy debates between his advisors
is a process known as _________________ ____________________.
6. Presidents can avoid the need for Senate ratification of treaties
by entering into _____________________ ___________________ with foreign
governments.
7. The Supreme Court ruled in the ______________________ Cases that
Lincoln had acted in a proper constitutional fashion in his conduct
of the Civil War.
8. The president does not possess an ___________________ veto, allowing
him to veto sections of a bill.
9. The right of the president to refuse information requested by
Congress and the courts is called ________________________ ____________________.
10. The third and last phase of the relationship between the president
and the media is characterized by ______________________.
Compare and Contrast
1. chief of state and head of government
2. natural-born citizens and naturalized citizens
3. stewardship theory and constitutional theory
4. inner Cabinet and outer Cabinet
5. Economic Policy Council and Domestic Policy Council
6. OMB, NSC, CEA, and OPD
7. Twenty-fifth Amendment and Presidential Succession Act of 1947
8. executive agreements and Case Act
9. line-item veto, pocket veto, and item veto
10. executive privilege, Watergate affair, and United States v.
Nixon
True-False
1. The Constitution requires the president to be a naturalized citizen,
35 years of age or older, and a resident of the United States for
at least 14 years. T F
2. The Senate has the right to refuse a presidential appointment
even if only on the grounds of opposition to a particular policy.
T F
3. The Cabinet has historically been considered the president’s
closest policy advisors. T F
4. The primary responsibility of the Council of Economic Advisers
is to help the president develop the annual federal budget. T F
5. The Case Act has for the most part made executive agreements
a thing of the past. T F
6. During World War I Congress granted President Wilson almost dictatorial
control over the economy. T F
7. The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution stipulates that before introducing
troops into combat, the president must consult with Congress. T F
8. The president of the United States, unlike many governors, does
not possess a line-item veto. T F
9. In United States v. Nixon, the Supreme Court declared that executive
privilege is not an absolute right. T F
10. A president’s endorsement of a candidate has little influence
on voters. T F
Multiple Choice
1. According to the Constitution, a president must be
a. a natural born citizen.
b. 35 years of age or older.
c. a resident of the United States for at
least 14 years.
d. all of the above.
2. Presidential pardon power
a. applies equally to federal and state and
local laws.
b. does not include clemency for a class
of people.
c. rarely gains headlines.
d. may not be granted prior to a conviction
or indictment.
3. Membership in the inner Cabinet does not include the
a. Secretary of Commerce.
b. Secretary of the Treasury.
c. Attorney General.
d. Secretary of Defense.
4. Senior White House aides are responsible for
a. setting legislative strategy.
b. keeping check on the bureaucracy.
c. planning the president’s time.
d. all of the above.
5. The executive office responsible for the formulation, coordination,
and implementation of economic and domestic policy is the
a. Office of Management and Budget.
b. National Security Council.
c. Council of Economic Advisers.
d. Office of Policy Development.
6. Treaties negotiated by the president of the United States
a. are rarely controversial and routinely
ratified.
b. require a two-thirds approval by the House
of Representatives.
c. often require presidential concessions.
d. usually involve relatively minor matters.
7. The constitutional power to declare war belongs to the
a. courts. c. president.
b. Congress. d. military.
8. Franklin Roosevelt
a. interned thousands of Japanese Americans
in concentration camps.
b. asserted wartime powers independent of
Congress.
c. transformed the nature of the presidency.
d. all of the above.
9. The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
a. gave President Johnson broad authority
to use military force in Southeast Asia.
b. was passed unanimously in the House, but
defeated in the Senate.
c. was revoked by Congress only three months
after being passed.
d. requires the president to consult with
Congress before introducing troops into combat.
10. The War Powers Resolution
a. has seriously limited the powers of the
president.
b. granted President Johnson extensive war
powers during the Southeast Asian conflict.
c. has had little effect on presidential
behavior.
d. was unanimously endorsed by both hawks
and doves in the Senate.
11. An important presidential legislative skill is
a. a good sense of timing.
b. a high quality legislative liaison office.
c. consultation with leaders from both political
parties.
d. all of the above.
12. A line-item veto
a. was opposed by President Reagan.
b. is employed if Congress adjourns during
the 10-day period after sending a bill to the president.
c. is not available to the president.
d. can be overridden by a two-thirds majority
in each house.
13. Executive privilege
a. was upheld as constitutional in United
States v. Nixon.
b. is the right of the president to refuse
information requested by Congress or the courts.
c. has been rarely used in recent years.
d. was granted to Reagan when Congress requested
the testimony of EPA director Anne Burford.
14. The gap between what the public expects
and what the president can do is greatest
when it comes to
a. economic policy. c. environmental policy.
b. foreign policy. d. military policy.
15. The only federal government officials to be convicted and removed
from office were
a. senators. c. vice-presidents.
b. cabinet members. d. judges.
16. During the honeymoon period of an administration the relationship
between the president and the media can be characterized by
a. cooperation. c. detachment.
b. conflict. d. hostility.
Essay
1. What are the constitutional powers of the president? How have
these powers been interpreted by different presidents? Give examples
to illustrate your answer.
2. Who are the presidential advisors and aides? What roles do they
play? Why are they so important to the president’s ultimate
success or failure? Give examples.
3. Using examples, describe how the president’s war powers
have changed since the nineteenth century. Explain the controversy
between the president and Congress over war powers.
4. Why are some presidents more effective in getting their legislative
proposals through Congress than others?
5. According to the text, presidents and the media are usually involved
in a “love-hate relationship.” Explain what is meant
by this. What are the phases of the relationship between the president
and the media?
Research Topics and Practical Applications
1. Presidents are often concerned about their historical reputations.
Make a list of the factors that you believe might be used to rank
a president as great, near great, above average, average, below average,
or failure. Try placing the presidents in these various categories
and then compare your rankings with those published by historians.
Comment on whether greatness is thrust upon presidents by historical
circumstances or whether a president can influence his own destiny.
2. Collect data from Gallup polls on presidential approval ratings
since the Eisenhower administration and comment on the following:
a. How do the presidents compare in terms
of their average approval rating and what factors might influence
why some presidents are more popular than others?
b. How has the approval rating fluctuated
during each president’s time in office? Is the honeymoon period
apparent from the opinion data? Does the approval rating for each
president decline over time?
c. Comment on how each president’s changing approval rating
might have been affected by the state of the economy, the international
situation, and the individual president’s relationship with
the media during his time in office. Speculate about those influences
that may have been especially important.
ANSWER KEY
Completion
1. ceremonial
2. Twenty-second
3. stewardship theory
4. inner Cabinet
5. multiple advocacy
6. executive agreements
7. Prize
8. line-item
9. executive privilege
10. detachment
True-False Multiple Choice
1. F 1. d
2. T 2. c
3. F 3. a
4. F 4. d
5. F 5. d
6. T 6. c
7. F 7. b
8. T 8. d
9. T 9. a
10. T 10. c
11. d
12. c
13. b
14. a
l5. d
16. a
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